Research
African Origin for Carolina Gold?
April 2008
At the November 2007 meeting of the American Society of Agronomy, Anna McClung of the United States Department of Agriculture announced that she and Robert Fjellstrom had identified a genetic match for Carolina Gold rice in a sample of seed rice collected in 1972 in Ghana. The African variety, called Bankoram, shared the key genetic marker, the RM 190 allele, that distinguishes Carolina Gold from the multitude of world rice varieties. The presence of this genetic component, controlling starchiness, prompted McClung and Fjellstrom to seek 43 other molecular characteristics of Carolina Gold in the Bankoram sample. It possessed 42. When planted and grown, the rice greatly resembled Carolina Gold.
Several persons have attempted to discover the Old World ancestry of Carolina Gold Rice. In 2006, the Carolina Gold Rice foundation funded a rice collection trip in Indonesia seeking a parent strain on the island of Sulawesi. The seed collected there proved not to be related to Carolina Gold.
McClung and Fjellstrom examined 1,600 samples of rice germplasm looking for ones that bore the RM 190 marker that appears in only 1 % of the world’s rice varieties. All accessions that showed the marker were grown out to examine how the plants resembled or differed from Carolina Gold. Only thirteen bore enough structural resemblance to merit further exploration. When these were examined for the 43 other molecular markers, Bankoram emerged as the only approximate match.
More research remains to determine whether Bankoram was a native African evolution from Oryza glaberrima or may have been an African adaptation of Carolina Gold, whose cultivation spread globally during the nineteenth century. If it is a long-grain variety, then the great likelihood is that it is the latter case. If it is the short-grained version, then the case for an African genesis of America’s most famous historic rice variety is strengthened.
Who first planted Carolina Gold?
April 2008
by David S. Shields
When early historians of Carolina agriculture told of the introduction of rice into cultivation, they unanimously spoke of white rice as the original crop in the colony, dominating production until “late in the last century” (i.e. the last part of the 18th century) when it was eclipsed by “gold seed rice.” When gold seed rice came to be planted was a matter of debate. N. B. Cloud of The American Cotton Planter (1853) thought it “sometime before the Revolutionary War.” But most commentators thought the introduction of the variety followed upon the peace of 1783. John D. Legare in an 1823 report of the South Carolina Agricultural Society on the importation of foreign seeds, noted that “the late Col. Henry Laurens imported a small quantity of what is called the Gold-seed Rice, soon after the revolutionary war, which was found to be so far superior to the white-hulled Rice before cultivated, that the latter is now scarcely to be met with” (American Farmer 24, p. 187).
Laurens, the famous patriot merchant and planter, who spent much of the Revolution captive in the Tower of London, until released in exchange for General Conwallis. He remained in Europe, assisting in the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris ending the war. While mention is made that he imported the rice, no report exists that he planted it at Mepkin Abbey, when he attempted to rebuild the plantation after the war. He eventually returned home in 1784 to Mepkin. John Lewis Gervais, his agent, had overseen the planting of rice at Stono and Mepkin beginning in 1783. The papers of Henry Laurens for the period, however do not remark that the rice produced on his plantations was a new variety.
Indeed, the first person whom we know by name to have grown Carolina Gold Rice was Hezekiah Mayham. Colonel Mayham (1739-1789), best known to history as a fiery tempered officer in Swamp Fox Francis Marion*s regiment, planted gold seed rice on his plantation abutting Pineville in St. Stephen’s Parish, Berkeley County, South Carolina in 1785. Robert Alston, the most respected chronicler of Carolina rice culture in the antebellum period, in a summary of Gold Seed Rice, observed: “The ordinary crop rice most highly esteemed and therefore universally cultivated, an oblong grain 3-8ths of an inch in length, slightly flattened on two sides, of a deep yellow or golden color, awn short; when the husk and inner coat are removed, the grain presents a beautiful pearly-white appearance—an ellipsoid in figure, and somewhat translucent. This rice has been introduced into the Winyaw and Waccamaw region, since the revolution. It was planted by Col. Mayham, on Santee, in 1785. [The Commercial Review of the South and West, 1846, p. 327]
Who was Colonel Mayham and what had he to do with agriculture? He was from all accounts a bold and ambitious fellow. A member of the first Provincial Congress of South Carolina, he opted for military rather than political life, accepting election as captain in Col. Huger’s regiment. He fought in the Revolution throughout the lowcountry, participating in the siege of Savannah and the battle of Stono. He is most famous for capturing a bastion of Carolina loyalist, Fort Watson, by erecting a tower, and shooting down into the enclave over the walls forcing its surrender. The idea would be imitated several times subsequently on southern battlefields. Illness in 1781 forced Mayham’s retirement from the field.
The economic uncertainty of the post-war era, particularly the inflation led to a situation where rice planters found themselves facing crippling debt. Mayham emerged as one of the ferocious men of the period, resisting foreclosures and championing debt relief in the legislature. Legend tells that when a sheriff came to serve Mayham debt papers, he forced the man to eat them. Rather than see the plantation system collapse, the government passed a series of debt relief bills throughout the 1780s.
Few memoirs present the life and works of Col. Mayham. They are not needed, because his memory has been preserved in the character of the most famous comic creation of early South Carolina fiction, William Gilmore Simm’s rough-hewn cavalier, Captain Porgy. In Sword and Distaff the brash, jovial captain under Francis Marion, retires from the field, struggles against debt, and strives mightily to reconstitute his lands, life, and slaves in the wake of the war. There is little doubt that Simms based his character on Mayham.
The Revolution disrupted the economy and the planting cycles in the Peedee, Santee, and Waccamaw watersheds. Most importantly it disrupted the production of seed rice. In the absence of the usual local supply, Mayham and his fellow planters had to secure other stock. It is no wonder that a new variety—Gold Seed—happened to be planted in the region then. Whence did it come? No one knows. Why was Mayham’s planting important? That can determined with some accuracy. His grandson, Joshua John Ward, master of Brookgreen plantation, friend of Robert Allston, and one of the great rice barons of antebellum South Carolina, traced his gold seed stock back to his grandsire. Ward to honor his forebear erected the four-sided inscribed monument over Mayham’s remains in Pineville. Ward became the most important rice seed producer in the antebellum period.
It was out of the Mayham-Ward lineage of gold seed rice that long grain Carolina gold was developed. Long grain—5/12ths of an inch in length—weighed at 840 grains an ounce whereas short grain weighed 896 grains an ounce. In 1838 one of Ward’s slaves discovered a panicle of unusually large grained rice during threshing. Ward had the seeds planted. By 1840 he had a half acre of seed in the field and by 1843 had expanded the output so greatly that his entire crop consisted of long grain. [The Cultivator 1844, p. 50]. It quickly became the market standard in the United States.
D. S. Shields
When early historians of Carolina agriculture told of the introduction of rice into cultivation, they unanimously spoke of white rice as the original crop in the colony, dominating production until “late in the last century” (i.e. the last part of the 18th century) when it was eclipsed by “gold seed rice.” When gold seed rice came to be planted was a matter of debate. N. B. Cloud of The American Cotton Planter (1853) thought it “sometime before the Revolutionary War.” But most commentators thought the introduction of the variety followed upon the peace of 1783. John D. Legare in an 1823 report of the South Carolina Agricultural Society on the importation of foreign seeds, noted that “the late Col. Henry Laurens imported a small quantity of what is called the Gold-seed Rice, soon after the revolutionary war, which was found to be so far superior to the white-hulled Rice before cultivated, that the latter is now scarcely to be met with” (American Farmer 24, p. 187).
Laurens, the famous patriot merchant and planter, who spent much of the Revolution captive in the Tower of London, until released in exchange for General Conwallis. He remained in Europe, assisting in the negotiations of the Treaty of Paris ending the war. While mention is made that he imported the rice, no report exists that he planted it at Mepkin Abbey, when he attempted to rebuild the plantation after the war. He eventually returned home in 1784 to Mepkin. John Lewis Gervais, his agent, had overseen the planting of rice at Stono and Mepkin beginning in 1783. The papers of Henry Laurens for the period, however do not remark that the rice produced on his plantations was a new variety.
Indeed, the first person whom we know by name to have grown Carolina Gold Rice was Hezekiah Mayham. Colonel Mayham (1739-1789), best known to history as a fiery tempered officer in Swamp Fox Francis Marion*s regiment, planted gold seed rice on his plantation abutting Pineville in St. Stephen’s Parish, Berkeley County, South Carolina in 1785. Robert Alston, the most respected chronicler of Carolina rice culture in the antebellum period, in a summary of Gold Seed Rice, observed: “The ordinary crop rice most highly esteemed and therefore universally cultivated, an oblong grain 3-8ths of an inch in length, slightly flattened on two sides, of a deep yellow or golden color, awn short; when the husk and inner coat are removed, the grain presents a beautiful pearly-white appearance—an ellipsoid in figure, and somewhat translucent. This rice has been introduced into the Winyaw and Waccamaw region, since the revolution. It was planted by Col. Mayham, on Santee, in 1785. [The Commercial Review of the South and West, 1846, p. 327]
Who was Colonel Mayham and what had he to do with agriculture? He was from all accounts a bold and ambitious fellow. A member of the first Provincial Congress of South Carolina, he opted for military rather than political life, accepting election as captain in Col. Huger’s regiment. He fought in the Revolution throughout the lowcountry, participating in the siege of Savannah and the battle of Stono. He is most famous for capturing a bastion of Carolina loyalist, Fort Watson, by erecting a tower, and shooting down into the enclave over the walls forcing its surrender. The idea would be imitated several times subsequently on southern battlefields. Illness in 1781 forced Mayham’s retirement from the field.
The economic uncertainty of the post-war era, particularly the inflation led to a situation where rice planters found themselves facing crippling debt. Mayham emerged as one of the ferocious men of the period, resisting foreclosures and championing debt relief in the legislature. Legend tells that when a sheriff came to serve Mayham debt papers, he forced the man to eat them. Rather than see the plantation system collapse, the government passed a series of debt relief bills throughout the 1780s.
Few memoirs present the life and works of Col. Mayham. They are not needed, because his memory has been preserved in the character of the most famous comic creation of early South Carolina fiction, William Gilmore Simm’s rough-hewn cavalier, Captain Porgy. In Sword and Distaff the brash, jovial captain under Francis Marion, retires from the field, struggles against debt, and strives mightily to reconstitute his lands, life, and slaves in the wake of the war. There is little doubt that Simms based his character on Mayham.
The Revolution disrupted the economy and the planting cycles in the Peedee, Santee, and Waccamaw watersheds. Most importantly it disrupted the production of seed rice. In the absence of the usual local supply, Mayham and his fellow planters had to secure other stock. It is no wonder that a new variety—Gold Seed—happened to be planted in the region then. Whence did it come? No one knows. Why was Mayham’s planting important? That can determined with some accuracy. His grandson, Joshua John Ward, master of Brookgreen plantation, friend of Robert Allston, and one of the great rice barons of antebellum South Carolina, traced his gold seed stock back to his grandsire. Ward to honor his forebear erected the four-sided inscribed monument over Mayham’s remains in Pineville. Ward became the most important rice seed producer in the antebellum period.
It was out of the Mayham-Ward lineage of gold seed rice that long grain Carolina gold was developed. Long grain—5/12ths of an inch in length—weighed at 840 grains an ounce whereas short grain weighed 896 grains an ounce. In 1838 one of Ward’s slaves discovered a panicle of unusually large grained rice during threshing. Ward had the seeds planted. By 1840 he had a half acre of seed in the field and by 1843 had expanded the output so greatly that his entire crop consisted of long grain. [The Cultivator 1844, p. 50]. It quickly became the market standard in the United States.
D. S. Shields
Growing Rice at Whitehouse Plantation
September 2007
By Edwin H. Cooper, Jr.
Anyone who reads the chronicles and memoirs of the great rice planters of yesteryear in Carolina realizes that bringing a crop of Carolina Gold to harvest is no easy matter. At any given moment a promising field might fall victim to hail, insect infestation, a plague of birds, hurricanes, drought, or floods. As a reminder that these problems still afflict planters in the 21st century we present a report by Edwin H. Cooper, Jr., of his crop at Whitehouse Plantation on the Black and Peedee Rivers in Georgetown County, South Carolina. In the history of rice cultivation, Whitehouse, is famous for being one of the two plantations cultivated by Elizabeth Allston Pringle, author of A Woman Rice Planter (1913), the most eloquent memoir of the closing years of the great age of rice cultivation in South Carolina. Edwin H. Cooper, Jr. and his son, Edwin Cooper III are intent upon restoring the heritage crop to its old home.
2007
1. Rice was planted in approx. 30a. of prepared fields at Whitehouse around the last week of April so as to avoid any chance of freezing weather, as plagued many farmers this year.
2. Rice came up very well and we were preparing to flood the rice to control weeds once the rice was approx. 6" -8" tall. At that time, a strong coastal system with NE. winds came up the coast and caused our dikes to overtop, thus flooding most of the rice totally underwater.
3. We commenced pumping and were able to bring the water down below the top of most of the rice, but some parts of the field were killed.
4. Apparently the water contained a high salt content, which eventually killed the rest of the rice, although the water levels were not excessive.
5. The rice was planted in an old crawfish field, and the crawfish that we thought were gone reemerged and ate what was left of the rice. Obviously, we need to find a way to eliminate the crawfish before we attempt to plant rice again in that field. Any information you may have on this would be appreciated.
6. Bottom line is growing rice is not a hobby type undertaking, but we plan to continue to experiment.
Mr. Cooper welcomes any expert advice that might assist the success of the 2008 crop.
Anyone who reads the chronicles and memoirs of the great rice planters of yesteryear in Carolina realizes that bringing a crop of Carolina Gold to harvest is no easy matter. At any given moment a promising field might fall victim to hail, insect infestation, a plague of birds, hurricanes, drought, or floods. As a reminder that these problems still afflict planters in the 21st century we present a report by Edwin H. Cooper, Jr., of his crop at Whitehouse Plantation on the Black and Peedee Rivers in Georgetown County, South Carolina. In the history of rice cultivation, Whitehouse, is famous for being one of the two plantations cultivated by Elizabeth Allston Pringle, author of A Woman Rice Planter (1913), the most eloquent memoir of the closing years of the great age of rice cultivation in South Carolina. Edwin H. Cooper, Jr. and his son, Edwin Cooper III are intent upon restoring the heritage crop to its old home.
2007
1. Rice was planted in approx. 30a. of prepared fields at Whitehouse around the last week of April so as to avoid any chance of freezing weather, as plagued many farmers this year.
2. Rice came up very well and we were preparing to flood the rice to control weeds once the rice was approx. 6" -8" tall. At that time, a strong coastal system with NE. winds came up the coast and caused our dikes to overtop, thus flooding most of the rice totally underwater.
3. We commenced pumping and were able to bring the water down below the top of most of the rice, but some parts of the field were killed.
4. Apparently the water contained a high salt content, which eventually killed the rest of the rice, although the water levels were not excessive.
5. The rice was planted in an old crawfish field, and the crawfish that we thought were gone reemerged and ate what was left of the rice. Obviously, we need to find a way to eliminate the crawfish before we attempt to plant rice again in that field. Any information you may have on this would be appreciated.
6. Bottom line is growing rice is not a hobby type undertaking, but we plan to continue to experiment.
Mr. Cooper welcomes any expert advice that might assist the success of the 2008 crop.
Chronicles of Carolina Gold Rice
January 2007
Extract of a Letter of Peter Collinson to Gentleman’s Magazine, May 26, 1766.
In the year 1696, my sagacious friend, Charles Dubois, then treasurer to the East Indian Company, told me often with pleasure, that he first put the Carolinians on the culture of rice.
He happened one day, in that year, to meet Thomas Marsh, a Carolina merchant, at the coffee-house, to whom he said, I have been thinking, from the situation, nature of the soil, and climate, that rice may be produced to great advantage in Carolina: but, says Marsh, how shall we get some to try? Why, says Dubois, I will inquire for it amongst our Indian captains. Accordingly, a money-bag full of East India rice was given to Marsh, and he sent it to South Carolina; and in the year 1698, he told his friend Dubois, that it had succeeded very well.
But, from so small an original, it required a long time to spread to advantage; besides, the people being unacquainted with the manner of cultivating rice, many difficulties attended the first planting and preparing it, as a vendible commodity, so that little progress was made for the first nine or ten years, when the quantity produced was not sufficient for home consumption.
About this time, a Portuguese vessel arrived, with slaves from the east, with a considerable quantity of rice, being the ship’s provision; this rice the Carolinians gladly took in exchange for a supply of their own produce. This unexpected cargo was distributed, which gave new spirit to the undertaking, but was not sufficient to supply the demand of all those that would have procured it to plant.
Therefore the Assembly of South Carolina, taking into consideration the importance of the culture of rice, very prudently voted a bounty to encourage its importation, that there might be a supply of seed for every undertaker.
My ingenious friend, Tho. Lambol, esq. now living, informs me, that in the year 1704, being then a lad, going to school at some distance from Charles-Town, he took notice of some planters who were essaying to make rice grow.
In the year 1712, the same gentleman was an apprentice to a principal merchant in Charles-Town, who was appointed public treasurer; and he well remembers that a bounty (granted by the Assembly) was then paid to a captain, who brought in the first cargo of rice, after the bounty was ordered; this cargo came from the Straits, probably from Egypt, or the Milanesse.
In the year 1713, another ship arrived, and the captain made the like demand, and received the bounty for bringing a cargo of rice and slaves from Madagascar.
From these particulars it appears that the progress of raising rice in any considerable quantity was very slow; and I can find no account of any being exported for the first fifteen years. But it is reasonable to conclude, that after the arrival of these two cargoes of rice, for sowing, the planters were amply furnished, to extend its culture; and being a yearly production, it soon became a staple commodity; it is therefore very probably, that in the years 1715 or 1716, a quantity was raised sufficient for exportation, which continued to increase till the year 1726, and then it became a great article of commerce. For my correspondent, Sam Eveligh, a merchant residing in Charles-Town, writes me that, from the year
Barrels of Rice
1726 to 1727 were exported 40,000
1729 to 1730 were exported 41,957
1740 to 1741 were exported 80,000
1755 to 1756 were exported 60,000
1757 to 1758 were exported 67,040
1760 to 1761 were exported 100,024
1761 to 1762 were exported 34,972
half barrels 3,600
The Carolina Gazette of June 12, 1762, says the crops of rice are so great that we expect to make 150,000 barrels.
I cannot express the satisfaction I feel, in reflecting on the wonderful increase of so valuable a commodity, from so small a beginning, in about, or little more than, half a century.
May 26, 1766 P. Collinson
Toward an Improved Variety of Carolina Gold Rice
December 2004
by Merle Shepard and Hal Hanvey
B. Merle Shepard, Ph.D., is a Professor of Entomology and the Director of Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center.
Hal Hanvey is Farm Manager of the facility.
Our studies at Clemson University’s
Coastal Research and Education Center (CREC), Charleston, SC were
started when we obtained seeds of ‘Carolina Gold’ rice from the
USDA-ARS Germplasm Laboratory in Aberdeen, Idaho in 1998. The
Carolina Gold was grown in the greenhouse for the first year. Then
in 1999 we transplanted them to the field. We increased the seeds
each year and in 2000 we sent the Carolina Gold seeds to Dr. Gurdev
Khush, head of the Plant Breeding and Genetics Department at the
International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, with
the request to cross these with modern, high-yielding varieties but
with instructions to keep the gold color (and hopefully, the taste)
of Carolina Gold.
Dr. Khush made these crosses and in 2002 we planted 25 CGR-modern
variety rice crosses at CREC. Our objective was to develop an
improved strain of Carolina Gold with better yields, disease and
insect resistance and one that would resist lodging (falling down
in high winds and rain), an undesirable characteristic of Carolina
Gold. Dr. Khush sent 25 accessions that resulted from crosses
between Carolina Gold and high-yielding Japonica type varieties. We
selected 12 of these and evaluated them in 2003.
Four of the most promising ones were planted in 2004 and we
selected one that will be increased in 2005. One genotype stands
out among the others and we hope to develop a new variety called
‘Charleston Gold’. Another 2 – 3 years field observations should
allow us to decide if ‘Charleston Gold’ will really become a
suitable variety.
Another aspect of our research is moving toward organic production
of Carolina Gold. At the suggestion of Glenn Roberts, President of
the CGRF and owner of Anson Mills, we used sustainable methods of
production of Carolina Gold for the first time in 2003. We had very
positive results and have decided to continue growing part of each
year’s crop in this way.
Over the years we have donated seed to be grown for demonstration
projects such as the Middleton Place rice field grown in 2002,
2003, 2004, and the crop to be grown there in 2005. In addition we
have consulted with several other interested growers including
Magnolia Plantation & Gardens, Mike Booth’s Low Country Foods,
Dr. Jack Rhodes’ Prospect Hill Plantation fields, and Glenn
Roberts’ field this year also at Prospect Hill.
Also, the WINGS program in the Charleston county schools benefited
from our seed and growing expertise this year. They received 300
patio pools of growing rice plants donated to them by the Spoleto
Festival after they were used in their presentation called “Water
Table” at the Memminger Elementary School. These pools were first
set up here at the CREC where the soil was placed into the pots,
fertilizer and seed added, watered to germination and then flood
was maintained until the plants were trucked to Memminger for the
presentation.
B. Merle Shepard, Ph.D., is a Professor of Entomology and the Director of Clemson University, Coastal Research and Education Center.
Hal Hanvey is Farm Manager of the facility.
Experimenting with Gold
June 2004
While a small group of local
entrepreneurs began to experiment with growing commercial Carolina
Gold Rice in the mid-1980s, Clemson University’s Coastal Research
& Education Center (CREC) in Charleston attempted their first
crop of Carolina Gold Rice in 1998. The goal of CRECs experimental
crops has been to grow a rice having the color and flavor of the
original Carolina Gold with a better yield than the original.
According to Hal Hanvey, farm manager at the CREC, the initial rice seed came from two sources, part from a local private party and the balance from the USDA Germplasm Repository in Aberdeen, Idaho. After the first few crops, the seed generated from the private donor’s supply was returned to him. Hanvey has continued to plant crops and generate seed from the special accession rice from the Idaho facility.
One of the weak points of Carolina Gold is the height of the stalk. It is a tall growing variety and tends to fall over in the field, which reduces the yield of the crop. In an attempt to lower the grain stalk, CREC has worked with renowned rice breeder Dr. Gurdev Khush of the International Rice Research Institute. He crossed the Carolina Gold Rice with a number of modern varieties of rice hoping to develop a variety that would maintain the basic characteristics of Carolina Gold but reduce the stalk height of the plant.
CREC initially planted all of Dr. Khush’s crossed varieties, narrowing the selection to twelve varieties in 2003. This year the CREC has planted the four most successful varieties of Khush’s original twenty-five. According to Hanvey, in this final four he will be looking for the variety the best maintains the color and flavor of traditional Carolina Gold yet grows a stalk at a height more common to the modern varieties which will improve yield.
According to Hal Hanvey, farm manager at the CREC, the initial rice seed came from two sources, part from a local private party and the balance from the USDA Germplasm Repository in Aberdeen, Idaho. After the first few crops, the seed generated from the private donor’s supply was returned to him. Hanvey has continued to plant crops and generate seed from the special accession rice from the Idaho facility.
One of the weak points of Carolina Gold is the height of the stalk. It is a tall growing variety and tends to fall over in the field, which reduces the yield of the crop. In an attempt to lower the grain stalk, CREC has worked with renowned rice breeder Dr. Gurdev Khush of the International Rice Research Institute. He crossed the Carolina Gold Rice with a number of modern varieties of rice hoping to develop a variety that would maintain the basic characteristics of Carolina Gold but reduce the stalk height of the plant.
CREC initially planted all of Dr. Khush’s crossed varieties, narrowing the selection to twelve varieties in 2003. This year the CREC has planted the four most successful varieties of Khush’s original twenty-five. According to Hanvey, in this final four he will be looking for the variety the best maintains the color and flavor of traditional Carolina Gold yet grows a stalk at a height more common to the modern varieties which will improve yield.